Footnotes

1. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
2. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
3. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) The Slave in Greece and Rome (Wisconsin Studies in Classics) Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press ↩︎
4. Gaius Plinius Secundus {Pliny theElder} (77 – 79 AD) Natural History Book 33, sections 95 – 164. Translated by H. Rackham (1952) pliny-natural-history ↩︎
5. Jérôme Carcopino (2004) Daily Life in Ancient Rome. London: The Folio Society. ↩︎
6. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
7. https://carthagemagazine.com/carthage-national-museum/ ↩︎
8. Guy de la Bédoyére (2020) Gladius: Living, Fighting and Dying in the Roman Army. london: Little, Brown ↩︎
9. Noel Lenski (2023) Slavery in the Roman Empire within The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Edited by Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (2023) Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook ↩︎
10. https://www.britishmuseum.org/exhibitions/nero-man-behind-myth/slavery-ancient-rome ↩︎
11. Thomas W. Africa (1995) Adam Smith, the Wicked Knight, and the Use of Anecdotes https://www.jstor.org/stable/643074?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
12. https://www.villaromanadelcasale.it ↩︎
13. The Annals of Tactitus published in Vol. V of the Loeb Classical Library edition of Tacitus, 1937 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/14C*.html ↩︎
14. In the Imperial Age a Praetor was a magistrate acting as a judge or responsible for a sector of public service. ↩︎
15. Jo-Ann Shelton (1997) As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ↩︎
16. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fedor_Bronnikov_002.jpg ↩︎
17. In Greek myth a maenad was a female follower of the wine God Dionysus. They were inspired by the god to become ecstatic through dance, alcohol and sex ↩︎
18. Mary Beard (2008) Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. London: profile Books  ↩︎
19. Bradley (1988)  ↩︎
20. Keith R. Bradley (1988) Roman Slavery and Roman Law https://www.jstor.org/stable/23232665?read-now=1&seq=12#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
21. The mask was made by pressing wax directly onto the deceased’s face and created a photographic likeness as opposed to statues and busts, which were also common memorials for elite men but allowed some artistic license. ↩︎
22. Keith R Bradley (1991) “The Regular, Daily Traffic in Slaves”: Roman History and Contemporary History https://www.jstor.org/stable/3297968?read-now=1&seq=9 ↩︎
23. Robert Knapp (2011) Invisible Romans: Prostitutes, Outlaws, Slaves, Gladiators, Ordinary Men. London: Profile Books ↩︎
24. Harold Whetstone Johnston (1903) The Private Life of the Romans: Exploring Roman Daily Life and Customs in Ancient Civilization re-Published by Good Press, 2019 Kindle Edition. ↩︎
25. Knapp (2011) ↩︎
26. Ulrike Roth (2011) Man Without Hope https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/123573772/RothPBSR_2011MenWithoutHope.pdf ↩︎
27. Thayer – Mancipium https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Varro/de_Re_Rustica/2*.html#note125 ↩︎
28. Peculium: under Roman law only the head of the family, paterfamilias, could own property. To address this the paterfamilias could place funds or property under the control of their sons; technically this peculium remained the property of the paterfamilias until, on his death, it moved into the ownership of the son. The same system was used for slaves, their master could give them rewards or they could earn money from the work that they carried out for their owner. Often they used the peculium to buy their freedom, i.e. they handed it back to their owner in return for their freedom. ↩︎
29. The De Re Rustica by Marcus Terentius Varro. published in the Loeb Classical Library, 1934 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Varro/de_Re_Rustica/2*.html#ref125 ↩︎
30. https://www.louvre.fr/en ↩︎
31. Mary Beard (2008) Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. London: Profile Books. ↩︎
32. V.1.26 Pompeii. Found in peristyle L. Love scene with figure in background. Now in Naples Archaeological Museum. Inventory number 110569 https://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R5/5%2001%2026%20p6.htm ↩︎
33. https://www.khm.at/objektdb/detail/52091/ ↩︎
34. The Room of the Slaves – The Latest Discovery at Civita Giuliana https://pompeiisites.org/en/comunicati/the-room-of-the-slaves-the-latest-discovery-at-civita-giuliana/ ↩︎
35. Pompeii: the Lives of Slaves in Civita Giuliana https://pompeiisites.org/en/comunicati/pompeii-the-life-of-slaves-in-civita-giuliana/#:~:text=Furniture%20from%20a%20room%20assigned,situation%20of%20precariousness%20and%20subordination. ↩︎
36. The Library of History of Diodorus Siculus. Published in Vol. II
    of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1935 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/3A*.html#:~:text=LacusCurtius%20•%20Diodorus%20Siculus%20—%20Book%20III%20Chapters%201%E2%80%9114 ↩︎
37. The De Re Rustica of Columella. published in Vol. I
    of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1941 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Columella/de_Re_Rustica/1*.html#6.3.2 ↩︎
38. Barbarian to a Roman, or Greek, was simply someone from outside of the Roman world, an uncivilised foreigner. ↩︎
39. William Smith (1875) A Dictionary of Greek and Roma Antiquities. London: John Murray. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Ergastulum.html ↩︎
40. https://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/Casts/victim%20porta%20capua%202002.htm ↩︎
41. Jo-Ann Shelton (1997) As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ↩︎
42. https://www.smb.museum/en/museums-institutions/pergamonmuseum/home/ ↩︎
43. United Nations, Case Law Database, https://cld.irmct.org/notions/show/307/enslavement ↩︎
44. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1954-1214-1 ↩︎
45. The Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. published in Vol. II of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1939 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/4B*.html ↩︎
46. Eve D’Ambra (1989) The Cult of Virtues and the Funerary Relief of Ulpia Epigone https://www.jstor.org/stable/41541120?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
47. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
48. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
49. https://ancienttheatrearchive.com/theatre/pompey-theatre/ ↩︎
50. If we calculate what a denarius would be worth today using the British minimum wage (£11.44 per hour or £69 for a 6 hour day) versus the Roman unskilled labour rate of 1 denarius a day or a legionnaires wage of 1 denarius a day we get a multiplier of 69 denarii to one British pound. I crossed checked this by taking the current basic wage of a British soldier at £25,200 per annum and compared this with 1 denarii a day or 365 denarii a year for a legionnaire. £25,200 / 365 = 69. The basic wage methodology was copied from the Ancient Money Calculator https://testamentpress.com/ancient-money-calculator.html   ↩︎
51. https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/museo-chiaramonti/Museo-Chiaramonti.html ↩︎
52. C. Suetonius Tranquillus (AD 121) The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. published in the Loeb Classical Library, 1914 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#:~:text=%E2%80%8B71%202%20When%20certain,to%20kill%20such%20a%20slave ↩︎
53. John Malden (1996) Slavery in the Roman Empire Numbers and Origins https://www.jstor.org/stable/25528294?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
54. Calder Loth (2014) The Corinthian of the Temple of Castor and Pollux https://www.classicist.org/articles/the-corinthian-of-the-temple-of-castor-and-pollux-an-order-for-special-occasions/ ↩︎
55. I use the word “market” in the sense of a place to trade a commodity not in the sense of a purpose built structure.   ↩︎
56. The Saepta Julia was huge enclosure measuring 310 x 120 metres where the tribes of Rome voted on the Campus Martius, the field of Mars. ↩︎
57. Philostratus (translated by Frederick Conybeare 1912) The Life of Apollonius of Tyana https://archive.org/details/conybeare-1912-philostratus-apollonius/mode/2up ↩︎
58. Asia which covered most of modern Anatolia was a peaceful province bordering the eastern Mediterranean and was governed by a proconsul of consular rank meaning he was usually a former consul and experienced general. ↩︎
59. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/402865 ↩︎
60. Eleanor G. Huzar (1962) Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos https://www.jstor.org/stable/3293859?read-now=1&seq=7#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
61. Erythraean Sea interactive digital map https://digitalmapsoftheancientworld.com/digital-maps/trade/the-periplus-of-the-erythraean-sea/ ↩︎
62. Olga Pelcer-Vujačić (2019) Slaves and Freemen in Lydia and Phrygia in the Early Roman Empire
    https://istorijskizapisi.me/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Pelcer-Vujacic-Slaves-and-freedmen-in-Lydia-and-Phrygia.pdf ↩︎
63. A. B. Bosworth (2002) Vespasian and the Slave Trade https://www.jstor.org/stable/3556462?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
64. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1802-0710-2 ↩︎
65. Terry Madenholm (2024) The ‘Eternal Boys’ of Ancient Rome https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/2024-01-08/ty-article/the-eternal-boys-of-ancient-rome/0000018c-e90c-d249-a1ce-ef4da6b70000# ↩︎
66. https://hermitagemuseum.org/digital-collection/922916?lng=en ↩︎

Other Sources and Further Reading

1. Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (editors) (2023) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook
2. Simon Webb (2024) The Forgotten Slave Trade. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Book
3. Noel Lenski and C. Cameron (2019) Framing the Question: What Is a Slave Society? Lenski- Cameron- Framing-the-Question
4. W. O. Blake (1861) Slavery and the Slave Trade, Ancient and Modern, The Forms of Slavery that Prevailed in Ancient Nations, Particularly in Greece and Rome. Columbus, Ohio, H. Miller https://archive.org/details/historyofslavery00blaka
5. Sir Christopher Hawkins (1811) Observations on the Tin Trade of the Ancients in Cornwall https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=JSoBAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.RA1-PP4&hl=en
6. Project Ancient Tin (2023) https://projectancienttin.wordpress.com
7. Trevor Davidson (2024) Culture, politics, and economics: Alcohol and the dynamic social environment of Celtic Europe https://scholarworks.uni.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=ugswork
8. Karim Mata (2019) Iron Age Slaving and Enslavement in Northwest Europe https://www.archaeopress.com/Archaeopress/DMS/7631052737434378954310F59ED951B0/9781789694185-sample.pdf
9. Bettina Arnold (1999) Drinking the Feast: Alcohol and the Legitimation of Power in Celtic Europe https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bettina-Arnold/publication/231888141_’Drinking_the_Feast’_Alcohol_and_the_Legitimation_of_Power_in_Celtic_Europe/links/544135fe0cf2e6f0c0f6049f/Drinking-the-Feast-Alcohol-and-the-Legitimation-of-Power-in-Celtic-Europe.pdf
10. Barry Cunliffe (1985) Slaves, Wine and the Roman Conquest https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08lGo11Og6M
11. Francis Pryor ( 2003) Britain BC. London: Harper Collin
12. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) The Slave in Greece and Rome (Wisconsin Studies in Classics) Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press
13. Charles Freeman (1999) The Greek Achievement. London: Allen Lane
14. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books
15. Mary Beard (2024) Emperor of Rome. London: Profile Books
16. Mary Beard (2008) Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. London: Profile Books
17. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
18. Jérôme Carcopino (2004) Daily Life in Ancient Rome. London: The Folio Society.
19. J.P.V.D. Balsdon [editor] (1965) The Romans. London: C.A. Watts & Co
20. Nigel Rodgers (2008) Ancient Rome. London: Hermes House
21. Guy de la Bédoyére (2013) Roman Britain A New History (revised edition). London: Thames & Hudson
22. Guy de la Bédoyére (2024) Populus: Living and Dying in the Wealth, Smoke and Din of Ancient Rome. London: Abacus Books
23. Guy de la Bédoyére (2020) Gladius: Living, Fighting and Dying in the Roman Army. london: Little, Brown
24. Peter Jones (2013) Veni, Vidi, Vici: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Romans But Were Afraid to Ask. London: Atlantic Books
25. Jo-Ann Shelton (1997) As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
26. Vincent J Rosivach (1987) Autochthony and the Athenians https://www.jstor.org/stable/638830?seq=1
27. Jason Paul Wickham (2014) The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/17893/1/WickhamJ_May2014_17893.pdf
28. Eleanor G. Huzar (1962) Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos https://www.jstor.org/stable/3293859?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
29. Philostratus (translated by Frederick Conybeare 1912) The Life of Apollonius of Tyana https://archive.org/details/conybeare-1912-philostratus-apollonius/mode/2up
30. Olga Pelcer-Vujačić (2019) Slaves and Freemen in Lydia and Phrygia in the Early Roman Empire https://istorijskizapisi.me/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Pelcer-Vujacic-Slaves-and-freedmen-in-Lydia-and-Phrygia.pdf
31. Walter Scheidel (2024) Slavery’s Rome https://www.academia.edu/119779150/Scheidel_Slaverys_Rome
32. A. B. Bosworth (2002) Vespasian and the Slave Trade https://www.jstor.org/stable/3556462?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
33. Laurie Venters (2019) Recovering Runaways; Slave Catching in the Roman World https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2659945/view
34. Guy D. Middleton (2023) The Horror of Pompeii. https://aeon.co/essays/what-pompeiis-ruins-say-about-its-enslaved-prostituted-women
35. Lincoln H. Blumell (2007) Beware of Bandits Banditry and Land Travel in the Roman Empire https://www.academia.edu/5826506/_Beware_of_Bandits_Banditry_and_Land_Travel_in_the_Roman_Empire_Journeys_The_International_Journal_of_Travel_and_Travel_Writing_8_1_2008_1_20
36. Online Companion to The Worlds of Roman Women https://feminaeromanae.org
37. Jon Gauthier (2013) Marcus Aurelius and slavery in the Roman Empire marcus-aurelius-slavery
38. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books 
39. Greek and Roman Authors on LacusCurtius – “A good number of these classical texts by ancient authors, whether in the original language or in translation, are not to be found elsewhere online.” http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/
40. Robert Knapp (2011) Invisible Romans: Prostitutes, Outlaws, Slaves, Gladiators, Ordinary Men. London: Profile Books
41. Emma Southon (2020) A Fatal Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum: Murder in Ancient Rome. London: Oneworld Publications
42. Harold Whetstone Johnston (1903) The Private Life of the Romans: Exploring Roman Daily Life and Customs in Ancient Civilization re-Published by Good Press, 2019 Kindle Edition

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