Footnotes

1. Miriam Cottias (2024) The Deep Legacy of Slavery https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000390561_eng ↩︎
2. Erythraean Sea interactive digital map https://digitalmapsoftheancientworld.com/digital-maps/trade/the-periplus-of-the-erythraean-sea/ ↩︎
3. Buy and sell in this sense is more likely to be bartering, the exchange of goods. ↩︎
4. Both the nine and the ten million estimates are by Tidiane N’Diaye, a Senegalese anthropologist who wrote Le Génocide Voilé, the Veiled Genocide that unfortunately has never been translated into English. A summary can be found here: Bassam Michael Madany (2020) Veiled Genocide: An Ignored Historic Tragedy https://www.newenglishreview.org/articles/veiled-genocide-an-ignored-historic-tragedy/ ↩︎
5. Jere L. Bacharach (1981) African Military Slaves in the Medieval Middle East: The Cases of Iraq (869-955) and Egypt (868-1171) https://www.jstor.org/stable/162910?read-now=1&seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
6. Ibn Battuta (1304 to c.1368) was a great medieval traveler who reached as far south as Kilwa on the east African coast as well as China and Indonesia in the far east. https://sacredfootsteps.com/2023/07/03/ibn-battuta-in-east-africa/ ↩︎
7. At BMC Ecology and Evolution – See Nourdin Harich and Others (2010) below. ↩︎
8. Nourdin Harich and Others (2010) The trans-Saharan slave trade – clues from interpolation analyses and high-resolution characterisation of mitochondrial DNA lineages https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-10-138#Fig1 ↩︎
9. The suggestion that the Arab slave trade was somehow less evil than the trans-Atlantic trade is horribly misguided; concubines were taken as sex slaves which is not mitigated by how well they might (sometimes) have been treated after they were sold; men and boys were very frequently castrated so they could be sold as harem guards and the survival rate from this barbaric practice could have been as low as 20% and might have been as low as 5% by the time their subsequent march to the coast was taken into account. (see here for more on the east African slave trade) ↩︎
10. Simon Webb (2024) The Forgotten Slave Trade. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books ↩︎
11. Noel Lenski and C. Cameron (2019) Framing the Question: What Is a Slave Society? https://www.academia.edu/40285420/Framing_the_Question_What_Is_a_Slave_Society_proofs ↩︎
12. Natal Alienation is where a person is forcibly disconnected or estranged from their kinship traditions, cultural heritage and historical memories. ↩︎
13. Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (editors) (2023) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371587225_Slavery_in_Ancient_Greece ↩︎
14. The SS Wirtschafts und Verwaltungshauptant (WVHA) was a Nazi organisation responsible for managing the business projects of the Nazi government and the concentration camps. ↩︎
15. HLS Nuremberg Trials Project – NMT Case 4, USA v. Pohl et al. https://nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/nmt_4_intro ↩︎
16. United Nations, Case Law Database, https://cld.irmct.org/notions/show/307/enslavement ↩︎
17. Noel Lenski and C. Cameron (2019) Framing the Question: What Is a Slave Society? https://www.academia.edu/40285420/Framing_the_Question_What_Is_a_Slave_Society_proofs ↩︎
18. World History Encyclopaedia (2013) Carthage and its Harbour https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1213/carthage-and-its-harbour/ ↩︎
19. Noel Lenski and C. Cameron (2019) ↩︎
20. Forced Labour: An Overview – Holocaust Encyclo[pedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/forced-labor-an-overview ↩︎
21. Congo Free State (1885-1908) https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/congo-free-state-1885-1908/ ↩︎
22. Lee Edwards (2010) The Legacy of Mao Zedong is Mass Murder https://www.heritage.org/china/commentary/the-legacy-mao-zedong-mass-murder ↩︎
23. Seth Richardson (2023) Mesopotamian Slavery – within The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook ↩︎
24. Seth Richardson (2023) explains that the word for “slave” at this time is not easily identified. There were a number of different words that denoted foreignness that are used to describe slaves but they were also applied to owned people who were not foreign. Like Richardson I will just use the word “slave” and avoid at least one rabbit hole. ↩︎
25. There is a general issue across many eras of human history in that the English world slave or, as it was spelled originally, “sclave” first appears in c. 1300 AD and was derived from the latin word “sclavus” amnd the Byzantine Greek word “Sklábos” meaning “Slav”. Slavs were an ethnic group who are thought to have originated in west central Asia from where they migrated into eastern Europe. Their homeland is generally considered to centre on the Ukraine. The word for Slavic people and slaves became synonymous as a result of the huge trade in Slavs taken from areas raided initially by Vikings c. 900AD and later by Arabs. ↩︎
26. Seth Richardson (2023) Mesopotamian Slavery – within The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook ↩︎

Other Sources and Further Reading

1. Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (editors) (2023) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook
2. Simon Webb (2024) The Forgotten Slave Trade. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Book
3. Noel Lenski and C. Cameron (2019) Framing the Question: What Is a Slave Society? https://www.academia.edu/40285420/Framing_the_Question_What_Is_a_Slave_Society_proofs

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