Footnotes

1. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
2. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press  ↩︎
3. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) The Slave in Greece and Rome (Wisconsin Studies in Classics) Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press ↩︎
4. Gaius Plinius Secundus {Pliny theElder} (77 – 79 AD) Natural History Book 33, sections 95 – 164. Translated by H. Rackham (1952) pliny-natural-history ↩︎
5. Jérôme Carcopino (2004) Daily Life in Ancient Rome. London: The Folio Society. ↩︎
6. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
7. https://carthagemagazine.com/carthage-national-museum/ ↩︎
8. Guy de la Bédoyére (2020) Gladius: Living, Fighting and Dying in the Roman Army. london: Little, Brown ↩︎
9. Noel Lenski (2023) Slavery in the Roman Empire within The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Edited by Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (2023) Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook ↩︎
10. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
11. When telling this story writers are always keen to point out that the latin word lupa meaning female wolf was also the colloquialism for a prostitute. So Romulus and Remus were either suckled by a lactating wolf or a sex-worker although what she was doing wandering around the banks of the Tiber far from any town or village is anybody’s guess. ↩︎
12. From The New Colossus by Emma Lazarus as in scribed on the State of Liberty in New York Harbour https://www.nps.gov/stli/learn/historyculture/emma-lazarus.htm ↩︎
13. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/437329 ↩︎
14. Jo-Ann Shelton (1997) As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ↩︎
15. https://www.museoetru.it/en ↩︎
16. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/396204 ↩︎
17. Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus ruled for 17 days in AD 270 but it might have been longer. However he was unpopular with the army and either committed suicide or was murdered. Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (Gordian II) ruled for 22 days in AD 238 and at least had the dignity to die in battle against Capellianus, governor of Numidia . ↩︎
18. Mary Beard (2024) Emperor of Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
19. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
20. Enrico Benelli (2013) the Etruscan World – abstract on Slavery and Manumission benelli-etruscan ↩︎
21. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Loix_des_Douze_Tables.jpg ↩︎
22. William Smith (1875) Libertus in a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. smith-libertus ↩︎
23. Keith R. Bradley (1985) The Early Development of Slavery at Rome bradley-early-slavery ↩︎
24. Keith R. Bradley (1985) The Early Development of Slavery at Rome bradley-early-slavery ↩︎
25. https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/the-sack-of-a-city-222179 ↩︎
26. https://www.unrv.com/empire/fall-of-carthage.php ↩︎
27. The Histories io Polybius published in Vol. IV of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1925 https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/10*.html ↩︎
28. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books ↩︎
29. Museo del Palazzo dei Conservatori ↩︎
30. https://www.ashmolean.org ↩︎
31. Jason Paul Wickham (2014) The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/17893/1/WickhamJ_May2014_17893.pdf ↩︎
32. Rome’s motorway ring road ↩︎
33. Third Veientine War (406 – 396 BC) third-veientine-war ↩︎
34. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books ↩︎
35. Livy, History of Rome https://topostext.org/work/142 ↩︎
36. Jason Paul Wickham (2014) The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/17893/1/WickhamJ_May2014_17893.pdf ↩︎
37. Population of Roman Empire https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/roman-society/population-of-roman-empire/ ↩︎
38. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books ↩︎
39. https://museoarcheologiconapoli.it ↩︎
40. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
41. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books ↩︎
42. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_Oo-4-26 ↩︎
43. https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/109915 ↩︎
44. If we calculate what a denarius would be worth today using the British minimum wage (£11.44 per hour or £69 for a 6 hour day) versus the Roman unskilled labour rate of 1 denarius a day or a legionnaires wage of 1 denarius a day we get a multiplier of 69 denarii to one British pound. I crossed checked this by taking the current basic wage of a British soldier at £25,200 per annum and compared this with 1 denarii a day or 365 denarii a year for a legionnaire. £25,200 / 365 = 69. So 27,000 slaves at 1,000 denarii each = 2,700,000 then multiply by 69 = £186,300,000. The basic wage methodology was copied from the Ancient Money Calculator https://testamentpress.com/ancient-money-calculator.html ↩︎
45. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books ↩︎
46. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1994-1001-2 ↩︎
47. Plutarch was writing around 100 years after Caesar’s death, ↩︎
48. https://www.britishmuseum.org/exhibitions/nero-man-behind-myth/slavery-ancient-rome ↩︎
49. Noel Lenski (2023) Slavery in the Roman Empire within The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Edited by Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (2023) Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook ↩︎
50. Jason Paul Wickham (2014) The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/17893/1/WickhamJ_May2014_17893.pdf ↩︎
51. Wickham (2014) ↩︎
52. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius_-_detail4.jpg ↩︎
53. https://museonazionaleromano.beniculturali.it/en/palazzo-massimo/ ↩︎
54. The Ravenna coloni later revolted and Marcus Aurelius stopped sending them to the Italian peninsular. ↩︎
55. The difference between a colonus, a serf and a slave is wafer thin and I will look at this when discussing manumission and freedmen. ↩︎
56. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) The Slave in Greece and Rome (Wisconsin Studies in Classics) Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press ↩︎
57. A. B. Bosworth (2002) Vespasian and the Slave Trade https://www.jstor.org/stable/3556462?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ↩︎
58. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
59. bonn-stadt-museum ↩︎
60. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1873-0820-288 ↩︎
61. britain-slavery-evidence ↩︎
62. https://www.peoplescollection.wales/items/584897#?xywh=-213%2C-281%2C6416%2C3352 ↩︎
63. Francis Pryor ( 2003) Britain BC. London: Harper Collins ↩︎
64. Maidstone-museum ↩︎
65. Caitlin Green (2015) Some Roman slave shackles and figurines recorded from Britain by the PAS https://www.caitlingreen.org/2015/02/some-roman-slave-shackles-and-figurines.html ↩︎
66. https://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/roman_mosaics/mosaics_checklist.pdf ↩︎
67. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) The Slave in Greece and Rome (Wisconsin Studies in Classics) Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press ↩︎
68. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) ↩︎
69. The Time Julius Caesar Was Captured by Pirates caesar-pirates ↩︎
70. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Corinthians%2011%3A25-33&version=NIV ↩︎
71. https://www.kath-kirche-kaernten.at/pfarren/detail/C3060/der_maria_saaler_dom ↩︎
72. Lincoln H. Blumell (2007) Beware of Bandits Banditry and Land Travel in the Roman Empire bandits-land-travel ↩︎
73. Britons: Dio Cassius on the wild lifestyle and banditry of Maiatians and Kaledonians (early third century CE) dio-cassius-banditry ↩︎
74. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books ↩︎
75. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎
76. Robert Conn (2019) Vernae in the Roman Republic https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UFE0055956/00001 ↩︎
77. Vatican-museum-good-shepherd ↩︎
78. Peculium: a slave could not own property but a master could allow a slave to manage certain assets including money or land. In practice the assets were considered to belong to the slave and he could use them to buy his freedom. ↩︎
79. Marcus Porcius Cato also known as Cato the Censor or Cato the Elder was born in 234 BC and died in 149 BC. He had been a soldier, a senator and was the first man to write a history of Rome in Latin. ↩︎
80. Jo-Ann Shelton (1997) ↩︎
81. Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella wrote a 12 volume book, De re Rustica, about agriculture which has been preserved in full. ↩︎
82. Frank Breslin (2024) On Managing Slaves: Part 2 — Excerpts from Columella’s Treatise on How to Treat Slaves https://medium.com/@frankbreslin41/on-managing-slaves-part-2-excerpts-from-columellas-treatise-on-how-to-treat-slaves-2597714d2a66 ↩︎
83. Noel Lenski (2023) Slavery in the Roman Empire within The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Edited by Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (2023) Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook ↩︎
84. The Theodosian Code was a collection of 2,500 imperial laws collected under Theodosius II in Constantinople. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6353 ↩︎
85. https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/it.html ↩︎
86. Noel Lenski (2023) ↩︎
87. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara_Pacis#/media/File:Ara_Pacis,_Tellus_panel.jpg ↩︎
88. Izabela Leraczyk (2023) Exempla in the Tenth Book of Correspondence between Pliny the Younger and Emperor Trajan – Introductory Remarks https://karolinum.cz/data/clanek/11702/PHS_53_1_0011.pdf ↩︎
89. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ↩︎

Other Sources and Further Reading

1. Damian A Pargas and Juliane Schiel (editors) (2023) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery throughout History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan The Palgrave Handbook
2. Simon Webb (2024) The Forgotten Slave Trade. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Book
3. Noel Lenski and C. Cameron (2019) Framing the Question: What Is a Slave Society? Lenski- Cameron- Framing-the-Question
4. W. O. Blake (1861) Slavery and the Slave Trade, Ancient and Modern, The Forms of Slavery that Prevailed in Ancient Nations, Particularly in Greece and Rome. Columbus, Ohio, H. Miller https://archive.org/details/historyofslavery00blaka
5. Sir Christopher Hawkins (1811) Observations on the Tin Trade of the Ancients in Cornwall https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=JSoBAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.RA1-PP4&hl=en
6. Project Ancient Tin (2023) https://projectancienttin.wordpress.com
7. Trevor Davidson (2024) Culture, politics, and economics: Alcohol and the dynamic social environment of Celtic Europe https://scholarworks.uni.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=ugswork
8. Karim Mata (2019) Iron Age Slaving and Enslavement in Northwest Europe https://www.archaeopress.com/Archaeopress/DMS/7631052737434378954310F59ED951B0/9781789694185-sample.pdf
9. Bettina Arnold (1999) Drinking the Feast: Alcohol and the Legitimation of Power in Celtic Europe drinking-the-feast
10. Barry Cunliffe (1985) Slaves, Wine and the Roman Conquest https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08lGo11Og6M
11. Francis Pryor ( 2003) Britain BC. London: Harper Collin
12. Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat (2006) The Slave in Greece and Rome (Wisconsin Studies in Classics) Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press
13. Charles Freeman (1999) The Greek Achievement. London: Allen Lane
14. Mary Beard (2015) SPQR A History of Ancient Rome. London: Profile Books
15. Mary Beard (2024) Emperor of Rome. London: Profile Books
16. Mary Beard (2008) Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. London: Profile Books.
17. Keith Bradley (1994) Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
18. Jérôme Carcopino (2004) Daily Life in Ancient Rome. London: The Folio Society.
19. J.P.V.D. Balsdon [editor] (1965) The Romans. London: C.A. Watts & Co
20. Nigel Rodgers (2008) Ancient Rome. London: Hermes House
21. Guy de la Bédoyére (2013) Roman Britain A New History (revised edition). London: Thames & Hudson
22. Guy de la Bédoyére (2024) Populus: Living and Dying in the Wealth, Smoke and Din of Ancient Rome. London: Abacus Books
23. Guy de la Bédoyére (2020) Gladius: Living, Fighting and Dying in the Roman Army. london: Little, Brown
24. Peter Jones (2013) Veni, Vidi, Vici: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Romans But Were Afraid to Ask. London: Atlantic Books
25. Jo-Ann Shelton (1997) As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
26. Vincent J Rosivach (1987) Autochthony and the Athenians https://www.jstor.org/stable/638830?seq=1
27. Jason Paul Wickham (2014) The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/17893/1/WickhamJ_May2014_17893.pdf
28. Eleanor G. Huzar (1962) Roman-Egyptian Relations in Delos https://www.jstor.org/stable/3293859?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
29. Philostratus (translated by Frederick Conybeare 1912) The Life of Apollonius of Tyana https://archive.org/details/conybeare-1912-philostratus-apollonius/mode/2up
30. Olga Pelcer-Vujačić (2019) Slaves and Freemen in Lydia and Phrygia in the Early Roman Empire https://istorijskizapisi.me/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Pelcer-Vujacic-Slaves-and-freedmen-in-Lydia-and-Phrygia.pdf
31. Walter Scheidel (2024) Slavery’s Rome https://www.academia.edu/119779150/Scheidel_Slaverys_Rome
32. A. B. Bosworth (2002) Vespasian and the Slave Trade https://www.jstor.org/stable/3556462?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
33. Laurie Venters (2019) Recovering Runaways; Slave Catching in the Roman World https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2659945/view
34. Guy D. Middleton (2023) The Horror of Pompeii. https://aeon.co/essays/what-pompeiis-ruins-say-about-its-enslaved-prostituted-women
35. Lincoln H. Blumell (2007) Beware of Bandits Banditry and Land Travel in the Roman Empire bandits-land-travel
36. Online Companion to The Worlds of Roman Women https://feminaeromanae.org
37. Jon Gauthier (2013) Marcus Aurelius and slavery in the Roman Empire marcus-aurelius-slavery
38. Kevin F. Kiley (2022) An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Uniforms of the Roman World. Dayton Ohio: Lorenz Books 
39. Greek and Roman Authors on LacusCurtius – “A good number of these classical texts by ancient authors, whether in the original language or in translation, are not to be found elsewhere online.” http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/
40. Robert Knapp (2011) Invisible Romans: Prostitutes, Outlaws, Slaves, Gladiators, Ordinary Men. London: Profile Books
41. Emma Southon (2020) A Fatal Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum: Murder in Ancient Rome. London: Oneworld Publications

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